PPG foundation models compared
A side-by-side view of foundation models that take PPG as input, from PaPaGei and Pulse-PPG to multimodal models such as NormWear and CSFM. The table lists pretraining data, model size, whether weights are downloadable and the license, which are usually the first questions when choosing a model for a new task.

Aether
compute-optimal physiological waveform FM family (20M–2.1B)
AnyPPG
Apple wearable biosignals FM
BeatFormer
delay-aware beat-resolved ECG–PPG cardiovascular FM
CAP
CardioFM
CardioState-JEPA
CSFM (Cardiac Signal FM)
DNA-PPG
FemWear
Geenjaar multimodal-supervision PPG FM
HiMAE
M2AE (Biosignal Fingerprinting)
MIRA
NeuroRVQ (PPG tokenizer)
NormWear
NormWear-2
OpenSLA
Sensor-Language-Action model (UCLA, Yuzhe Yang lab)
PaPaGei-S
PPG-LM
ProtoMM (Pulse-Motion)
Pulse-PPG
RAE-PPG
Samsung MMR
SensorLM
SiamQuality
SIGMA-PPG
SleepFM-2
SOTER
TF-MambaNet
bidirectional-Mamba PPG foundation model (ICASSP 2026)
wHuBERT
HuBERT-style Conformer for 25 Hz wearable PPG + accelerometry
